Reference

Stoic A–Z

Stoicism comes with its own vocabulary, much of it Greek or Latin. This A–Z explains, in plain English, the ideas, people, books and practices you will meet on The Stoic Family. Definitions follow the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy and the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and quotations come from public-domain translations, with the translator named.

Amor fati: Latin for “love of fate,” a phrase made famous by Nietzsche rather than by the ancient Stoics, but often used for the Stoic attitude Epictetus describes in Enchiridion 8 (George Long's translation): “wish the things which happen to be as they are, and you will have a tranquil flow of life.” Accepting what has already happened goes hand in hand with energetic effort on what is still up to us.; Related: Fate, Dichotomy of control, Reserve clause (hupexairesis)
Apatheia: Freedom from the passions (pathē), the Stoic ideal state of mind. It does not mean having no feelings: the Stoics held that the wise still have good feelings (eupatheiai) and involuntary first reactions (propatheiai), and apatheia is best understood as equanimity.; Related: Passions (pathē), Eupatheiai (good feelings), Propatheiai (first movements)
Appropriate action (kathēkon): Kathēkon (Latin officium) means an appropriate action or proper function: the sensible thing to do given our nature and situation, such as looking after our health or the interests of the people we are connected to. Panaetius wrote a treatise On Proper Functions that Cicero used as the model for his On Duties (De Officiis).; Related: Indifferents (adiaphora), Roles, Panaetius (2nd century BCE)
Assent (synkatathesis): The mind's act of accepting an impression as true. For the Stoics, which impressions we receive is not up to us, but whether we assent to them is, which is why they held that our judgments, and the emotions built on those judgments, are our responsibility.; Related: Impressions (phantasiai), Passions (pathē), Prohairesis
Chrysippus (c. 280–207 BCE): Chrysippus of Soli was the third head of the Stoa, leading the school from about 230 BCE, and by all accounts its foremost theorist and systematizer. He is reported to have written over 150 works, but only fragments survive.; Related: Cleanthes (c. 331–232 BCE), Zeno of Citium (c. 335–263 BCE), Fate
Cleanthes (c. 331–232 BCE): Cleanthes of Assos succeeded Zeno as head of the Stoa. He is credited with adding “with nature” to Zeno's description of life's goal, giving the classic phrase “living in agreement with nature,” and his Hymn to Zeus survives.; Related: Zeno of Citium (c. 335–263 BCE), Chrysippus (c. 280–207 BCE), Living in agreement with nature
Cosmopolitanism: The Stoic view that, because all human beings share reason, they are fellow citizens of one universal city (cosmopolis). Justice therefore reaches every human being, not only our own family or country; Marcus Aurelius makes the point in Meditations 4.4.; Related: Oikeiosis, Justice (dikaiosynē), Hierocles (2nd century CE)
Courage (andreia): One of the four cardinal virtues, which the Stoics defined as knowledge of what should be endured and what should be feared. Its sub-virtues include endurance, confidence, cheerfulness and industriousness, so Stoic courage covers everyday perseverance as well as bravery in danger.; Related: Four virtues (cardinal virtues), Wisdom (phronēsis), Premeditatio malorum
Dichotomy of control: The name commonly given to Epictetus' starting point, which opens the Enchiridion (George Long's translation): “Of things some are in our power, and others are not.” In our power are our opinions, desires and aversions; not in our power are things like our body, property and reputation. Some modern writers, such as William Irvine, recast it as a “trichotomy” that adds the things we can partly influence.; Related: Prohairesis, Enchiridion, Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE)
Discourses: The lectures of Epictetus, written down by his student Arrian; four books survive of an original eight or more. They are fuller and livelier than the Enchiridion, which abridges them.; Related: Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE), Enchiridion, Prohairesis
Enchiridion: Greek for “handbook” or “manual”: a short abridgment of Epictetus' Discourses, prepared by Arrian. It opens with the dichotomy of control, but scholars caution that it gives a much thinner picture of Epictetus' thought than the Discourses.; Related: Discourses, Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE), Dichotomy of control
Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE): A Greek Stoic teacher born in Hierapolis in Asia Minor, who was enslaved for part of his life in Rome, studied with Musonius Rufus, and, after Domitian banished philosophers, taught at Nicopolis in northwest Greece until his death. He wrote nothing himself; his teaching survives through Arrian's Discourses and Enchiridion. He never married, but late in life adopted a child whose parents could not provide for it.; Related: Musonius Rufus (c. 30–before 101/102 CE), Discourses, Enchiridion
Eudaimonia: Usually translated “happiness” or “flourishing”: a well-lived life, the ultimate goal in ancient ethics. The Stoics' distinctive claim was that virtue alone is both necessary and sufficient for it.; Related: Virtue (aretē), Living in agreement with nature, Indifferents (adiaphora)
Eupatheiai (good feelings): The good feelings of a wise person, which the Stoics set against the passions: joy (chara) instead of pleasure, caution (eulabeia) instead of fear, and wish (boulēsis) instead of appetite. There is no good feeling that corresponds to distress. Their place in Stoic theory is one reason the picture of the Stoic as an unfeeling robot is a caricature.; Related: Passions (pathē), Apatheia, Propatheiai (first movements)
Evening review: A nightly look back over the day. Seneca describes it in On Anger 3.36, crediting the philosopher Sextius, who asked himself (Aubrey Stewart's translation): “What bad habit of yours have you cured to-day?” Seneca's own review is kindly rather than harsh (“I pardon you this time”), and on this site the evening review is a short, gentle family version: what went well, what was hard, and what to try tomorrow.; Related: Morning reflection, On Anger (De Ira), Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE)
Family creed: A short set of values a family writes together in its own words (for example, “We tell the truth” or “We help each other”) and keeps where everyone can see it. It borrows the Stoic habit of keeping key principles procheiron, “ready at hand,” so they come to mind when they are needed. The site's Family Creed tool walks you through writing one.; Related: Procheiron (ready at hand), Four virtues (cardinal virtues), Roles
Fate: For the Stoics, the unbreakable chain of causes through which everything happens, which they identified with the rational will of Zeus. Chrysippus argued that this does not make effort pointless, because some outcomes are “co-fated” with our actions: a patient's recovery can depend on someone calling the doctor.; Related: Logos, Amor fati, Chrysippus (c. 280–207 BCE)
Four virtues (cardinal virtues): The Stoics' four main virtues: wisdom, justice, courage and moderation (also translated temperance). They held that the virtues form a unity, so whoever truly has one has them all.; Related: Wisdom (phronēsis), Justice (dikaiosynē), Courage (andreia)
Hierocles (2nd century CE): A Stoic philosopher whose Elements of Ethics survives in part. He is known for picturing affection as a set of widening circles, an image closely tied to the doctrine of oikeiosis and to Stoic cosmopolitanism.; Related: Oikeiosis, Cosmopolitanism, Musonius Rufus (c. 30–before 101/102 CE)
Impressions (phantasiai): The way things appear to the mind, including the thoughts that come with them, such as “this is unfair.” Impressions arrive on their own; the Stoic task is to examine them before giving assent, and Epictetus made the correct use of impressions one of his two central ideas.; Related: Assent (synkatathesis), Prohairesis, Propatheiai (first movements)
Indifferents (adiaphora): Things that are neither good nor bad in the Stoic sense, such as health, wealth, reputation and their opposites, because none of them by itself makes a life better or worse; only virtue does. Mainstream Stoics still ranked them: health and wealth are “preferred” indifferents that it is normally right to pursue, and their opposites are “dispreferred.”; Related: Virtue (aretē), Eudaimonia, Appropriate action (kathēkon)
Justice (dikaiosynē): The virtue that governs how we treat other people; its sub-virtues include honesty, fair dealing, kindness and sociability. For the Stoics, its reach extends to every human being, not only to family and fellow citizens.; Related: Four virtues (cardinal virtues), Cosmopolitanism, Oikeiosis
Letters to Lucilius: Seneca's Moral Letters to Lucilius: 124 surviving letters, divided into 20 books, written in the last years of his life (about 62–65 CE). They are his most widely read and influential works, and a friendly first step into Stoicism.; Related: Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE), Premeditatio malorum, Memento mori
Living in agreement with nature: The Stoic statement of life's goal. Zeno called it “living in agreement”; Cleanthes added “with nature.” It means living consistently by reason, in tune with human nature, which the Stoics saw as rational and social, and with the rational order of the cosmos.; Related: Logos, Eudaimonia, Zeno of Citium (c. 335–263 BCE)
Logos: Greek for “reason.” For the Stoics, logos is both the rational principle that orders the whole cosmos, which they identified with God or Zeus, and the reason that each mature human being possesses.; Related: Fate, Living in agreement with nature, Cosmopolitanism
Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE): Roman emperor from 161 until his death in 180, and author of the Meditations. He thanks his Stoic teachers in Book 1 and singles out the writings of Epictetus; much of his reign was spent on military campaigns.; Related: Meditations, Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE), View from above
Meditations: Marcus Aurelius' private notebook in twelve books, probably written largely while he was on campaign around 171–175 CE. Its Greek title means “to himself,” and the title Meditations came from a later editor. He wrote it for his own moral improvement, not for publication, which is why it reads as a series of reminders rather than arguments.; Related: Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE), View from above, Morning reflection
Memento mori: Latin for “remember that you must die,” a label for the practice of keeping mortality in mind. Epictetus advises, in George Long's translation, “Let death and exile and every other thing which appears dreadful be daily before your eyes” (Enchiridion 21), and Marcus Aurelius writes, “Death hangs over thee. While thou livest, while it is in thy power, be good” (Meditations 4.17, Long). The point is to live well now, and with children it can be framed gently as gratitude for time together.; Related: Premeditatio malorum, View from above, Meditations
Moderation (sōphrosynē): Also translated temperance or self-discipline; one of the four cardinal virtues. Its sub-virtues include good discipline, modesty and self-control, and the Stoics understood it as wisdom applied to what we choose and avoid.; Related: Four virtues (cardinal virtues), Wisdom (phronēsis), Indifferents (adiaphora)
Morning reflection: A short practice of preparing for the day ahead. Marcus Aurelius opens Book 2 of the Meditations (George Long's translation): “Begin the morning by saying to thyself, I shall meet with the busybody, the ungrateful, arrogant, deceitful, envious, unsocial,” and then reminds himself that none of them can harm him and that he should not be angry with them. A family version might be naming one thing that could be hard today and how you plan to meet it.; Related: Premeditatio malorum, Evening review, Meditations
Musonius Rufus (c. 30–before 101/102 CE): A Roman Stoic teacher, exiled more than once, who taught Epictetus. He argued that daughters and sons should receive the same education, since women and men have the same virtues.; Related: Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE), Hierocles (2nd century CE), Four virtues (cardinal virtues)
Oikeiosis: Often translated “appropriation” or “affiliation”: the Stoic account of how creatures recognize what belongs to them, beginning at birth with an instinct to preserve themselves. As children grow and reason develops, concern can widen to family members, neighbors, fellow citizens and finally all humankind, which makes it the Stoics' theory of moral development.; Related: Hierocles (2nd century CE), Cosmopolitanism, Justice (dikaiosynē)
On Anger (De Ira): Seneca's treatise on anger in three books, addressed to Novatus. It argues that anger requires our assent, distinguishes it from involuntary first movements, and describes Seneca's evening review (3.36).; Related: Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE), Propatheiai (first movements), Evening review
Panaetius (2nd century BCE): A leading Stoic of the second half of the 2nd century BCE and the teacher of Posidonius. His treatise On Proper Functions was the model for Cicero's On Duties, and he is associated with practical, role-based ethics.; Related: Posidonius (1st century BCE), Appropriate action (kathēkon), Roles
Passions (pathē): In Stoic terms, excessive, irrational impulses based on the mistaken judgment that something indifferent is truly good or bad. The Stoics named four main kinds: distress, fear, appetite and pleasure (delight). “Passion” is narrower than our word “emotion”; the Stoics did not oppose all feeling.; Related: Apatheia, Eupatheiai (good feelings), Assent (synkatathesis)
Posidonius (1st century BCE): A student of Panaetius who taught at Rhodes and was a friend of Cicero. He is known for criticizing parts of Chrysippus' theory of the passions, though scholars debate how far he departed from it.; Related: Panaetius (2nd century BCE), Chrysippus (c. 280–207 BCE), Passions (pathē)
Premeditatio malorum: Latin for “premeditation of evils”: thinking ahead about misfortunes that could happen, so they come as less of a shock. Cicero discusses it in Tusculan Disputations 3, crediting the technique to the Cyrenaic school, and Seneca writes in Letter 91 (Richard M. Gummere's translation), “Our minds should be sent forward in advance to meet all problems.” It is meant as brief, calm preparation, not dwelling on worries; if a child's worrying is persistent, talk with their pediatrician.; Related: Memento mori, Morning reflection, Letters to Lucilius
Procheiron (ready at hand): Greek for “ready at hand”: keeping key principles so well rehearsed that they come to mind when a situation calls for them. Epictetus advised writing such responses down and rehearsing them daily (Discourses 1.1.21–25), and Marcus Aurelius' Meditations can be read as this kind of practice.; Related: Meditations, Family creed, Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE)
Progress (prokopē): Moral progress. Because the Stoic sage is an ideal figure, the practical aim is steady improvement, and much of Stoic teaching is addressed to people who are making progress rather than to the already wise.; Related: Sage, Evening review, Virtue (aretē)
Prohairesis: Epictetus' key term for our capacity for choice, often translated “volition.” He taught that it is naturally free from outside compulsion and is our real self, while the body, possessions, relationships and reputation are “externals.”; Related: Dichotomy of control, Assent (synkatathesis), Epictetus (born 50s CE, died c. 135 CE)
Propatheiai (first movements): Involuntary first reactions, such as a jolt of fear or a flash of irritation, that happen before we have assented to anything; even the wise person may tremble or turn pale. Seneca, in On Anger, argues that anger proper begins only when we assent to the judgment that we have been wronged. This is one reason Stoicism is not about never feeling anything.; Related: Assent (synkatathesis), Passions (pathē), On Anger (De Ira)
Reserve clause (hupexairesis): Wishing or acting “with reservation”: pursuing a goal while adding, in effect, “if it is fated,” as when a Stoic wishes to see a friend “if Zeus wills it.” It lets a person try wholeheartedly without being crushed when the outcome is not up to them.; Related: Dichotomy of control, Amor fati, Indifferents (adiaphora)
Roles: Epictetus taught that our duties follow from our roles, such as parent, child, sibling or citizen, so that concern for others extends especially to those connected to us, for example to one's children if one is a parent (Discourses 2.10). Panaetius, too, is reported to have taken an interest in role-based responsibilities.; Related: Appropriate action (kathēkon), Panaetius (2nd century BCE), Oikeiosis
Sage: The Stoics' ideal of the perfectly wise and virtuous person, who is free of passions yet has good feelings. It works as a model to steer by; in practice the Stoics emphasized progress toward it.; Related: Progress (prokopē), Virtue (aretē), Eupatheiai (good feelings)
Seneca (c. 4 BCE–65 CE): Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Roman Stoic, statesman and playwright, born in Cordoba, Spain. He was exiled to Corsica (41–49 CE), then became tutor and advisor to the young Nero, who later ordered him to end his own life in 65 CE. His surviving works include the Letters to Lucilius and essays such as On Anger.; Related: Letters to Lucilius, On Anger (De Ira), Evening review
Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch): The colonnade decorated with paintings in the Agora of Athens where Zeno and the first Stoics met and taught. The school takes its name from it.; Related: Zeno of Citium (c. 335–263 BCE), Cleanthes (c. 331–232 BCE), Chrysippus (c. 280–207 BCE)
View from above: The scholar Pierre Hadot's name for the Stoic exercise of imagining human affairs from a great height, so that everyday worries shrink to their true size. Marcus Aurelius writes (George Long's translation), “Look down from above on the countless herds of men” (Meditations 9.30), and Seneca takes a similar view from the stars in his Natural Questions.; Related: Meditations, Memento mori, Cosmopolitanism
Virtue (aretē): Excellence of character, which the Stoics defined as the perfected condition of human reason and treated as a form of knowledge. Their boldest claim is that virtue is the only true good and is enough, by itself, for a happy life.; Related: Four virtues (cardinal virtues), Eudaimonia, Indifferents (adiaphora)
Wisdom (phronēsis): Practical wisdom, one of the four cardinal virtues: the virtue that best lets us deal with whatever happens. Its sub-virtues include good sense, discretion and resourcefulness.; Related: Four virtues (cardinal virtues), Courage (andreia), Justice (dikaiosynē)
Zeno of Citium (c. 335–263 BCE): The founder of Stoicism, from Citium on Cyprus, who began teaching in Athens around 300 BCE at the Stoa Poikile. He had studied with the Cynic Crates and read the Socratic dialogues; none of his works survives complete.; Related: Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch), Cleanthes (c. 331–232 BCE), Living in agreement with nature